Syria possesses one of the world's oldest and richest cultural heritages, shaped by its position at the crossroads of civilizations for thousands of years. As part of the ancient Fertile Crescent, Syria has been home to numerous civilizations including Eblaites, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, and various Islamic dynasties, each leaving their mark on its cultural landscape.

Key elements of Syrian culture include:

• Religious heritage: Syria has historically been a mosaic of religious communities. The majority of Syrians are Sunni Muslims, with significant minorities including Alawites, Christians (various denominations), Druze, and Ismailis. This diversity is reflected in the country's religious architecture, from ancient churches and monasteries to grand mosques and shrines.
• Historical significance: Syria contains some of the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities, including Damascus and Aleppo. The country was a key part of ancient trade routes including the Silk Road, making it a melting pot of cultures and ideas throughout history.
• Traditional arts and crafts: Syria has long been renowned for its artistic traditions, including intricate woodwork, mother-of-pearl inlay, brocade textile weaving (particularly damask, named after Damascus), copper and brass work, blown glass, and mosaics. These crafts have been passed down through generations, though many traditional workshops have been affected by the conflict.
• Music and dance: Syrian music features distinctive melodic patterns and rhythms, with instruments including the oud (lute), qanun (zither), and darbuka (goblet drum). The dabke, a line dance performed at celebrations, is a popular traditional dance form with regional variations.

Syrian cuisine reflects the country's fertile agricultural land and historical trade connections, with regional variations throughout the country. The food culture emphasizes freshness, seasonality, and sharing:

• Mezze culture: Small dishes served as appetizers or as a meal themselves, including hummus, moutabal (eggplant dip), muhammara (red pepper and walnut spread), tabbouleh, and kibbeh (bulgur wheat and meat patties)
• Distinctive dishes: Yabrak (stuffed vine leaves), shakriyeh (yogurt-based lamb stew), fattoush (bread salad), and various kebabs
• Aleppo cuisine: Considered one of the finest in the Middle East, known for its sophisticated use of spices, especially Aleppo pepper, and dishes like cherry kebab (kabab karaz)
• Sweets and desserts: Baklava, mamoul (date or nut-filled cookies), and halawet el-jibn (sweet cheese rolls)
• Beverages: Traditional Arabic coffee, mint tea, and ayran (yogurt drink)

Despite the devastating impacts of the ongoing conflict, which has damaged much of Syria's cultural heritage and displaced millions of its people, Syrian culture continues to be preserved both within the country and by Syrian diaspora communities worldwide. Many Syrians are working to document, protect, and revive their cultural traditions, recognizing their importance as a foundation for eventual reconciliation and rebuilding.

Syria is home to some of the world's most significant archaeological and historical sites, with six UNESCO World Heritage Sites (all currently on the List of World Heritage in Danger). These sites reflect Syria's position at the crossroads of civilizations for thousands of years.

Ancient City of Damascus: One of the world's oldest continuously inhabited cities, the walled Old City of Damascus is a UNESCO World Heritage site. Its narrow streets contain the magnificent Umayyad Mosque, ancient Roman ruins, traditional houses with interior courtyards, historic hammams (bathhouses), and vibrant souks (markets) like the famous Souq al-Hamidiyya, where merchants have sold goods for centuries.

Ancient City of Palmyra: Once a vital caravan city at the crossroads of several civilizations, Palmyra's spectacular ruins blend Greco-Roman techniques with local traditions and Persian influences. While the site suffered significant damage during the conflict, particularly from ISIS occupation in 2015-2017, it remains an important testament to Syria's rich past. Major monuments include the Temple of Bel, the Great Colonnade, the Theater, and the Valley of Tombs.

Krak des Chevaliers: Considered one of the world's most important preserved medieval castles, this massive Crusader fortress stands atop a 650-meter-high hill. Built by the Knights Hospitaller in the 12th century, it represents the peak of European medieval military architecture. Despite some damage during the conflict, its imposing concentric design with massive walls and towers remains largely intact.

Ancient City of Aleppo: Dating back to the 2nd millennium BCE, Aleppo's Old City features the 12th-century citadel, numerous mosques, madrasas (Islamic schools), caravanserais, traditional houses, hammams, and its famous covered souks that stretch for over 12 kilometers. The Old City suffered extensive damage during the Battle of Aleppo (2012-2016), particularly the historic souks and the minaret of the Great Mosque, though restoration efforts are underway.

Ancient City of Bosra: Known for its magnificent 2nd-century Roman theater, one of the best-preserved ancient theaters in the world, which could seat up to 15,000 spectators. Bosra also contains ruins from the Nabataean, Byzantine, and early Islamic periods, showcasing the layered history that characterizes many Syrian archaeological sites.

Other significant historical sites include the Dead Cities (ancient abandoned settlements in northern Syria), Apamea with its grand Roman colonnade, the Citadel of Saladin, St. Simeon's Basilica, and numerous traditional villages, mosques, churches, and bazaars throughout the country. Many of these sites have been affected by the conflict, with varying degrees of damage and ongoing restoration efforts.

Prior to the conflict, Syria had a developing transportation network with a combination of public and private services connecting major cities and regions. The current situation varies significantly by area.

• Road network: Syria had an extensive road network connecting major cities and rural areas. While many highways and main roads have been rebuilt in government-controlled areas, others remain damaged. Military checkpoints are common on major routes, and travel between different regions may require permits or be restricted. Road conditions can vary dramatically, with unexploded ordnance posing dangers in some areas.
• Buses: Before the conflict, Syria had a comprehensive network of intercity buses operated by both public companies (like Karnak) and private operators. Limited services have resumed in stable areas, though routes, schedules, and quality of service have been affected by the conflict. Within cities like Damascus, local bus services operate, though with fewer vehicles and routes than before.
• Taxis and service cars: Taxis continue to be a common form of transportation within cities. "Service" taxis, which operate on fixed routes and pick up multiple passengers, connect neighborhoods within cities and sometimes nearby towns. Ride-sharing apps have emerged in some urban areas in recent years.
• Railways: Syria's railway system, which once connected major cities and provided links to neighboring countries, has been largely non-operational since the conflict began. Some limited services have been restored in specific areas, but most lines remain suspended.
• Border crossings: Syria shares borders with Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Israel. Most official border crossings have been affected by the conflict, with changing accessibility depending on political and security situations. Some crossings operate with restrictions, while others remain closed. Anyone considering cross-border travel should thoroughly research the current status of specific crossings.

Current considerations: Transportation within Syria currently presents significant challenges beyond the usual logistics of travel:

• Security situations can change rapidly, potentially leaving travelers stranded
• Fuel shortages have affected transportation services and availability
• Infrastructure damage may cause unexpected detours or delays
• Military checkpoints can involve lengthy security checks
• Different areas may be under control of different authorities, complicating travel between regions

For the limited humanitarian, diplomatic, and professional travel that does occur, careful advance planning, local guidance, and updated security information are essential. Many organizations operating in Syria employ security professionals to assess routes and transportation options before any movement.

Syria has several airports, though operations have been limited by conflict and sanctions:

• Damascus International Airport (DAM): Located approximately 25 km southeast of central Damascus, this is Syria's main international airport. After periods of closure during the conflict, it currently operates with limited international flights to destinations including Moscow, Tehran, Baghdad, Dubai, Yerevan, and some other regional cities. The airport has suffered damage from airstrikes at various points during the conflict, most recently in 2022, but repairs have been made.
• Aleppo International Airport (ALP): After a long period of closure during the conflict, Aleppo's airport reopened for limited domestic and international flights in 2020. Services are restricted to a few destinations such as Cairo, Moscow, and Damascus, with irregular schedules.
• Bassel Al-Assad International Airport (LTK): Located near Latakia, this airport primarily serves Syria's coastal region. During the conflict, it has been used for both civilian flights and military operations. Limited commercial services operate to destinations including Moscow and Beirut.
• Other airports: Syria has several other airfields including Deir ez-Zor Airport, Palmyra Airport, and Qamishli Airport. Most have been affected by the conflict, with varying degrees of damage and limited or no current civilian operations.

Airport Transportation: Given the current situation, airport transportation options may be limited:

• Damascus Airport: Taxis are available at the airport, though it's advisable to arrange transportation in advance through hotels or trusted contacts. Some hotels may offer airport pickup services. The airport road has seen security incidents during the conflict, though the situation has stabilized in recent years.
• Other airports: Transportation options at other airports are more limited, and advance arrangements are strongly recommended.

Important considerations: Air travel to and from Syria faces significant challenges beyond normal operations:

• International sanctions affect which airlines can operate to Syria
• Flight schedules may change with little notice
• Travel insurance may be difficult or impossible to obtain for travel to Syria
• Security procedures are extensive and time-consuming
• Many countries advise their citizens against all travel to Syria, which may affect consular assistance if problems arise

Syria's visa and entry procedures have been affected by the conflict, with changing requirements and limited services at diplomatic missions worldwide.

Visa Requirements (Pre-Conflict Context)

The following outlines general visa categories as they existed before the conflict:

Visa Type	Purpose	Notes
Tourist Visa	Tourism and short visits	Required in advance for most nationalities; typically valid for 15 days to 3 months
Business Visa	Business activities	Requires invitation letter from Syrian company/organization
Transit Visa	Passing through Syria	For travelers transiting through Syria to another destination
Student Visa	Study at Syrian institutions	Requires acceptance letter from educational institution
Work Visa	Employment in Syria	Requires sponsorship from Syrian employer

Current Situation: The visa application process has been complicated by the conflict:

• Many Syrian embassies and consulates worldwide have limited operations or are closed
• Requirements and processing times may vary significantly by location
• Additional security clearances are often required, extending processing times
• Entry through certain border crossings may be restricted or impossible
• Evidence of travel insurance covering Syria (difficult to obtain) may be required

Current Travel Considerations

• Security situation: The conflict has resulted in widespread destruction, displacement, and ongoing security concerns in many areas. While some regions have seen relative stabilization, the situation remains complex and volatile.
• Infrastructure challenges: Damage to infrastructure affects electricity, water, healthcare, and other essential services. Fuel shortages and economic challenges have further impacted daily life.
• Communication: Internet and mobile services exist in many areas but may be unreliable. International calls may be monitored, and certain communication apps and websites may be restricted.
• Currency and banking: International sanctions have severely limited banking services. Credit cards are rarely accepted, and ATMs generally do not work with foreign cards. The Syrian pound has experienced extreme inflation.
• Health considerations: The healthcare system has been severely impacted by the conflict, with many facilities damaged or destroyed. Access to medication and specialized care is limited in many areas.

For the extremely limited legitimate travel that does occur: This generally consists of humanitarian workers, diplomats, journalists (with special permission), and Syrians or those with family connections to Syria. Such travelers typically:

• Work with established organizations that have security protocols in place
• Obtain comprehensive security briefings before travel
• Register with their embassy if diplomatic representation exists
• Have evacuation plans in place
• Maintain regular communication with contacts outside the country
• Stay informed about rapidly changing situations

Despite the current challenges, Syria's people continue to demonstrate remarkable resilience. The country's rich cultural heritage and historical significance remain important to understanding Middle Eastern and global history, even as its present reality is marked by the devastating impacts of conflict.